- Prepared by: Hansa G. Bhaliya
- Roll No: 6
- Paper – 16: English language Teaching-2
- M.A (English) : Sem -4
- Enrollment No: 206910862090004
- Batch: 2019 - 21
- Email: hansabhaliya20@gmail.com
- Submitted to: Smt. S. B. Gardi, Department of English,MKBU.
- Topic: History of CALL - MALL
History of CALL
Although computers have been used since the first half of the 20th century, they were not used for educational purposes until the 1960s. The 1970s witnessed the evolution of CALL as a result of development in research related to the use of computers for linguistic purposes and for creating suitable language learning conditions. In America the computer based introductory courses in the 1960s were pioneering projects in CALL, and were referred to as computer Assisted Instruction (CAl) The 1980s have witnessed the spread of computers both in educational institutions and in people's homes. Since the beginning of the '80s computers have also found their way into many schools. CALL software has also become more readily available on the market (Ittelson: 2000).
The emergence of inexpensive computer technology and mass storage media, including optical videodiscs and compact disks, has given instructional technologists better tools to work with. Compact disks are used to store large amounts of data, such as encyclopedias or motion pictures. In CALL centers with computers and software such as CD-ROM, CD-I, or videodiscs, a student who is interested in a particular topic can first scan an electronic encyclopedia, then view a film on the subject or look at related topics at the reach of a button. Thus, such learning centers present students with the advantages of reference materials and popularize computer-aided instruction. The computer laboratory has become an integral component of foreign-language programs in most educational institutions (Hardisty & Windeatt: 1989).
Computers have been used for language teaching for more than three decades. According to Warschauer & Healey (1998) the history of CALL can be divided into three stages: behaviouristic CALL, communicative CALL and integrative CALL.
Each stage corresponds to a certain pedagogical approach.
Behaviouristic CALL
It was formed in the late 1960s and used widely in the 1970s under the influence of Audio-lingual teaching method. In this stage of CALL, repetitive language drills, referred to as drill-and practice were used. The computer was seen as a mechanical tutor who never allowed students to work at an individual pace, which hindered motivation. Further, it included extensive drills, grammatical explanations and translation at various intervals (Warschauer & Healey 1998).
Communicative CALL
It was the period of the 1980s. This period was the time that behaviouristic approach to language teaching was being rejected at both theoretical and pedagogical level, and also personal computers were creating greater possibilities for individual work at school. Communicative CALL corresponded to cognitive theories which stressed that learning was a process of discovery, expression and development. Under the influence of Communicative Language Teaching defendants of communicative CALL argued that computer based activities should focus more on using forms. Software developed in this period included text reconstruction program and simulations. In communicative CALL, the focus was not so much on what students did with the computer, but rather what they did with each other while working at the computer.
Interactive CALL
By the 1990s communicative CALL began to be criticized. New second language acquisition theories and socio-cognitive views influenced many teachers and lead them to use more social and learner-centered methods. This time, emphasis was put on language use in authentic social contexts. Ta husk-based, project-based and content-based approaches all sought to integrate learners in authentic environments, and also to integrate the various skills of language learning and use. In integrative approaches, students are enabled to use a variety of technological tools as an ongoing process of language learning and use rather than visiting the computer lab once a week basis for isolated exercises.
v Computer-work, pre-computer work and post-computer work
There are three stages in CALL activities:
a) Pre-computer work before students make use of the machines;
b) Work done at the computer;
c ) Post-computer work done away from the computer (Hardisty and Windeatt: 1989).
CALL AND LANGUAGE SKILLS
Computers offer learners various activities for developing different language skills. They can provide a useful and motivating medium for both integrated skills and separate activities. Warschauer & Healey (1998) describe them as follows:
Computers offer learners various activities for developing different language skills. They can provide a useful and motivating medium for both integrated skills and separate activities. Warschauer & Healey (1998) describe them as follows:
Reading Skills
There are three main ways in which computers are useful in helping language learners develop reading skills.
a) Incidental reading. Most of the CALL programs, whether oriented towards reading or not, involve the learner in reading text for the successful completion of the activity.
b) Reading comprehension. Traditional question and answer CALL programs are used for reading comprehension as well as grammar and vocabulary development.
C)) Text manipulation. There are a number of ways in which computers can manipulate continuous text which involve the learner in close study of the content and structure of the text. An example might be shadow reading which provides students with authentic texts. Additionally, sentence structure, speed reading and cloze-reading are some of the alternative ways of developing reading skills. An example for software matching activity might be the JMS Newline activity: 'Match the slang words with their definitions'. Another activity might be JMS Newline Software: Speed Practice Reading Comprehension activity (Sperling, 1998).
Writing Skills
The Word Processing program is one of the most common purposes for which computers are used and it is regarded as the most powerful to use when starting to work with CALL. In order to use word processors learners have to be familiar to the keyboard of the computer and they also have to learn the following before using the computer:
· Learn how to start a word processor
· Learn how to delete and insert a letter, a word or a larger chunk of text
· Learn how to save text
· Print a text
· Moving words, lines, sentences, etc. around.
Word-processing programs transform the computer into a sophisticated and flexible writing aid that can improve learners' writing skills and their attitude toward writing. The main principle of word-processing programs is based on the ability to manipulate text freely. By writing text into the memory of a computer, the writer can play round with his text until entirely satisfied. The word-processor provides useful practice for guided and free writing.
Vocabulary, grammar, punctuation and reading tests have an obvious relevance to the sub-skills that are needed for writing (Duber: 2000). By providing something to write about, the computer stimulates both writing and speaking. An example might be the following activity from the Redhouse Dictionary CD-ROM: 'Put the jumbled idioms in order and write them in your notebook'.
Speaking Skills
Oral communication is very important in language learning process. In today's language "classrooms, considerable emphasis is given to oral activities in which learners use the language they have learned to communicate with each other. These activities include simulations, role-plays and discussion. Computer simulations provide a stimulus for such a work, as they offer both a focus for oral activity and a continually changing scenario for learners to talk about. Computers have a useful contribution to the development of oral skills if they are used wisely (Hammersmith: 1998).
Dialogue studies can be made by the computers with the aid of the movies; students watching these dialogues can see the conversation, setting and cultural atmosphere clearly. They can also see the body movements and the semiotic background of the conversations and earn a powerful experience and thus improve their communicative competence. These all pave the way to their communicative performances through reinforcing their accuracy, intelligibility and fluency.
The main advantage of computer simulations is that they are very motivating. They give learners instant feedback on the effects of their decisions, and this feedback itself stimulates arguments and comments, suggestions and counter suggestions. An activity for improving listening and speaking skills might be a listening activity from 'Learn to Speak English Software I': Spoken English Demo: Communication Skills.
Listening Skills
Listening activities that use the computer are more complex than the other kinds of CALL materials since they involve equipment other than the computer itself. One of the simplest ways of giving practice in listening comprehension is to use a multiple-choice or fill-in program in conjunction with a cassette recorder or the latest multimedia containing a recorder. In addition to the normal feedback given after a wrong answer, the computer can let the learner hear the relevant part of the tape again. If a separate cassette recorder is used, the error message can give the learner appropriate counter numbers. Another simple technique is to use a tape with a test-reconstruction program which enables learners to reconstruct a summary of a recorded anecdote on screen by the help of the tape.
Such activities not only help to integrate listening and writing skills but also evaluate learners' listening comprehension skills in a more active way than is generally possible in a non-CALL class (Jones & Fortescue: 1987). An activity for improving listening skills might be a listening activity from 'JMS Newline Software', The Listening Leaner: Listening Comprehension, Spoken English.
Conclusion
The role of computer in language teaching has changed signified in the last three decades previously; computers used in language teaching were limited to text. The computer is a mechanical device which can be used well or badly. The use of computers is compatible with a variety of approaches, methods and techniques of learning and teaching.
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